This article is fascinating. It presents a great argument against functionalism in design.

May 17, 2005
A Critic Takes On the Logic of Female Orgasm

By DINITIA SMITH
Evolutionary scientists have never had difficulty explaining the male orgasm,
closely tied as it is to reproduction.

But the Darwinian logic behind the female orgasm has remained elusive. Women can
have sexual intercourse and even become pregnant - doing their part for the
perpetuation of the species - without experiencing orgasm. So what is its
evolutionary purpose?

Over the last four decades, scientists have come up with a variety of theories,
arguing, for example, that orgasm encourages women to have sex and, therefore,
reproduce or that it leads women to favor stronger and healthier men,
maximizing their offspring's chances of survival.

But in a new book, Dr. Elisabeth A. Lloyd, a philosopher of science and
professor of biology at Indiana University, takes on 20 leading theories and
finds them wanting. The female orgasm, she argues in the book, "The Case of the
Female Orgasm: Bias in the Science of Evolution," has no evolutionary function
at all.

Rather, Dr. Lloyd says the most convincing theory is one put forward in 1979 by
Dr. Donald Symons, an anthropologist.

That theory holds that female orgasms are simply artifacts - a byproduct of the
parallel development of male and female embryos in the first eight or nine
weeks of life.

In that early period, the nerve and tissue pathways are laid down for various
reflexes, including the orgasm, Dr. Lloyd said. As development progresses, male
hormones saturate the embryo, and sexuality is defined.

In boys, the penis develops, along with the potential to have orgasms and
ejaculate, while "females get the nerve pathways for orgasm by initially having
the same body plan."

Nipples in men are similarly vestigial, Dr. Lloyd pointed out.

While nipples in woman serve a purpose, male nipples appear to be simply left
over from the initial stage of embryonic development.

The female orgasm, she said, "is for fun."

Dr. Lloyd said scientists had insisted on finding an evolutionary function for
female orgasm in humans either because they were invested in believing that
women's sexuality must exactly parallel that of men or because they were
convinced that all traits had to be "adaptations," that is, serve an
evolutionary function.

Theories of female orgasm are significant, she added, because "men's
expectations about women's normal sexuality, about how women should perform,
are built around these notions."

"And men are the ones who reflect back immediately to the woman whether or not
she is adequate sexually," Dr. Lloyd continued.

Central to her thesis is the fact that women do not routinely have orgasms
during sexual intercourse.

She analyzed 32 studies, conducted over 74 years, of the frequency of female
orgasm during intercourse.

When intercourse was "unassisted," that is not accompanied by stimulation of the
clitoris, just a quarter of the women studied experienced orgasms often or very
often during intercourse, she found.

Five to 10 percent never had orgasms. Yet many of the women became pregnant.

Dr. Lloyd's figures are lower than those of Dr. Alfred A. Kinsey, who in his
1953 book "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female" found that 39 to 47 percent of
women reported that they always, or almost always, had orgasm during
intercourse.

But Kinsey, Dr. Lloyd said, included orgasms assisted by clitoral stimulation.

Dr. Lloyd said there was no doubt in her mind that the clitoris was an
evolutionary adaptation, selected to create excitement, leading to sexual
intercourse and then reproduction.

But, "without a link to fertility or reproduction," Dr. Lloyd said, "orgasm
cannot be an adaptation."

Not everyone agrees. For example, Dr. John Alcock, a professor of biology at
Arizona State University, criticized an earlier version of Dr. Lloyd's thesis,
discussed in in a 1987 article by Stephen Jay Gould in the magazine Natural
History.

In a phone interview, Dr. Alcock said that he had not read her new book, but
that he still maintained the hypothesis that the fact that "orgasm doesn't
occur every time a woman has intercourse is not evidence that it's not
adaptive."

"I'm flabbergasted by the notion that orgasm has to happen every time to be
adaptive," he added.

Dr. Alcock theorized that a woman might use orgasm "as an unconscious way to
evaluate the quality of the male," his genetic fitness and, thus, how suitable
he would be as a father for her offspring.

"Under those circumstances, you wouldn't expect her to have it every time," Dr.
Alcock said.

Among the theories that Dr. Lloyd addresses in her book is one proposed in 1993,
by Dr. R. Robin Baker and Dr. Mark A. Bellis, at Manchester University in
England. In two papers published in the journal Animal Behaviour, they argued
that female orgasm was a way of manipulating the retention of sperm by creating
suction in the uterus. When a woman has an orgasm from one minute before the
man ejaculates to 45 minutes after, she retains more sperm, they said.

Furthermore, they asserted, when a woman has intercourse with a man other than
her regular sexual partner, she is more likely to have an orgasm in that prime
time span and thus retain more sperm, presumably making conception more likely.
They postulated that women seek other partners in an effort to obtain better
genes for their offspring.

Dr. Lloyd said the Baker-Bellis argument was "fatally flawed because their
sample size is too small."

"In one table," she said, "73 percent of the data is based on the experience of
one person."

In an e-mail message recently, Dr. Baker wrote that his and Dr. Bellis's
manuscript had "received intense peer review appraisal" before publication.
Statisticians were among the reviewers, he said, and they noted that some
sample sizes were small, "but considered that none of these were fatal to our
paper."

Dr. Lloyd said that studies called into question the logic of such theories.
Research by Dr. Ludwig Wildt and his colleagues at the University of
Erlangen-Nuremberg in Germany in 1998, for example, found that in a healthy
woman the uterus undergoes peristaltic contractions throughout the day in the
absence of sexual intercourse or orgasm. This casts doubt, Dr. Lloyd argues, on
the idea that the contractions of orgasm somehow affect sperm retention.

Another hypothesis, proposed in 1995 by Dr. Randy Thornhill, a professor of
biology at the University of New Mexico and two colleagues, held that women
were more likely to have orgasms during intercourse with men with symmetrical
physical features. On the basis of earlier studies of physical attraction, Dr.
Thornhill argued that symmetry might be an indicator of genetic fitness.

Dr. Lloyd, however, said those conclusions were not viable because "they only
cover a minority of women, 45 percent, who say they sometimes do, and sometimes
don't, have orgasm during intercourse."

"It excludes women on either end of the spectrum," she said. "The 25 percent who
say they almost always have orgasm in intercourse and the 30 percent who say
they rarely or never do. And that last 30 percent includes the 10 percent who
say they never have orgasm under any circumstances."

In a phone interview, Dr. Thornhill said that he had not read Dr. Lloyd's book
but the fact that not all women have orgasms during intercourse supports his
theory.

"There will be patterns in orgasm with preferred and not preferred men," he
said.

Dr. Lloyd also criticized work by Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, an emeritus professor of
anthropology at the University of California, Davis, who studies primate
behavior and female reproductive strategies.

Scientists have documented that orgasm occurs in some female primates; for other
mammals, whether orgasm occurs remains an open question.

In the 1981 book "The Woman That Never Evolved" and in her other work, Dr. Hrdy
argues that orgasm evolved in nonhuman primates as a way for the female to
protect her offspring from the depredation of males.

She points out that langur monkeys have a high infant mortality rate, with 30
percent of deaths a result of babies' being killed by males who are not the
fathers. Male langurs, she says, will not kill the babies of females they have
mated with.

In macaques and chimpanzees, she said, females are conditioned by the
pleasurable sensations of clitoral stimulation to keep copulating with multiple
partners until they have an orgasm. Thus, males do not know which infants are
theirs and which are not and do not attack them.

Dr. Hrdy also argues against the idea that female orgasm is an artifact of the
early parallel development of male and female embryos.

"I'm convinced," she said, "that the selection of the clitoris is quite separate
from that of the penis in males."

In critiquing Dr. Hrdy's view, Dr. Lloyd disputes the idea that longer periods
of sexual intercourse lead to a higher incidence of orgasm, something that if
it is true, may provide an evolutionary rationale for female orgasm.

But Dr. Hrdy said her work did not speak one way or another to the issue of
female orgasm in humans. "My hypothesis is silent," she said.

One possibility, Dr. Hrdy said, is that orgasm in women may have been an
adaptive trait in our prehuman ancestors.

"But we separated from our common primate ancestors about seven million years
ago," she said.

"Perhaps the reason orgasm is so erratic is that it's phasing out," Dr. Hrdy
said. "Our descendants on the starships may well wonder what all the fuss was
about."

Western culture is suffused with images of women's sexuality, of women in the
throes of orgasm during intercourse and seeming to reach heights of pleasure
that are rare, if not impossible, for most women in everyday life.

"Accounts of our evolutionary past tell us how the various parts of our body
should function," Dr. Lloyd said.

If women, she said, are told that it is "natural" to have orgasms every time
they have intercourse and that orgasms will help make them pregnant, then they
feel inadequate or inferior or abnormal when they do not achieve it.

"Getting the evolutionary story straight has potentially very large social and
personal consequences for all women," Dr. Lloyd said. "And indirectly for men,
as well."

Copyright 2005 The New York Times Company